UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT  STATION 

CIRCULAR  No.  254 
November,  1922 

THE   USE   OF  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  TO 
INCREASE  WINTER  EGG  PRODUCTION 

By  J.   E.  DOUGHERTY 


Purpose. — The  use  of  artificial  lighting  of  poultry  houses  to  in- 
crease winter  egg  production  is  of  American  origin.  It  was  first 
used  on  the  assumption  that  fowls  do  not  require  more  hours  of  rest 
in  winter  than  in  summer  and  that  if  artificial  lighting  were  used  in 
winter  to  produce  similar  conditions  of  daylight  and  darkness  as 
exist  in  spring  and  summer,  increased  production  ought  to  result. 

In  winter  the  hours  of  daylight  are  short  as  compared  with  the 
hours  of  darkness,  whereas  during  the  spring  and  summer  seasons 
the  reverse  is  true.  For  example,  at  the  University  Farm,  Davis, 
the  average  time  of  daybreak  during  the  short  winter  months  is  7  a.m. 
and  the  average  time  when  fowls  go  to  roost  at  night  is  5  p.m.  During 
the  winter,  therefore,  laying  fowls  must  spend  approximately  14  hours 
on  the  roost.  Only  10  daylight  hours  are  then  left  to  them  in  which 
to  exercise  and  consume  sufficient  feed  to  (1)  take  care  of  their  body 
needs  during  the  long  night  period  and  (2)  supply  food  materials  for 
the  manufacture  of  eggs. 

The  capacity  of  a  hen's  crop  being  limited,  she  cannot,  during  the 
winter  months,  fill  her  crop  before  going  to  roost  with  much  more  than 
enough  food  to  nourish  her  body  during  the  long  hours  of  darkness. 
Very  little  is  left  to  be  manufactured  into  eggs.  The  result  is  that 
egg  production  in  the  winter  is  greatly  reduced  as  compared  with 
other  seasons  of  the  year. 

Extended  experiments  and  field  observations  have  demonstrated 
that  artificial  lighting  will  stimulate  egg  production  provided  the 
flock  is  intelligently  fed.  By  increasing  the  lighted  hours  to  compare 
with  spring  and  summer  conditions,  the  fowls  are  given  more  time 
to  exercise  and  eat  and  less  time  is  spent  on  the  roosts. 

Value  of  Artificial  Lighting. — Investigations  conducted  at  this 
and  other  stations  have  shown  that  winter  production  can  be  in- 
creased to  as  high  as  50  or  60  per  cent  by  artificial  lighting.  The 
hens  begin  to  respond  to  such  lighting  within  a  week  or  ten  days  and 


2  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

the  full  effect  is  obtained  in  about  three  weeks.  A  maximum  produc- 
tion can  then  be  expected  to  continue  into  early  March.  At  that  time 
there  is  likely  to  occur  a  slump  in  egg  yield,  which  may  be  accom- 
panied by  a  more  or  less  severe  molt  lasting  from  two  weeks  to  more 
than  a  month. 

Artificial  lighting  appears  to  increase  winter  production  at  the 
expense  of  spring  production  but  the  annual  production  of  the  flock 
is  not  necessarily  increased.  The  principal  value  of  this  practice 
is  that  it  induces  an  increased  production  in  winter  when  eggs  are 
high  in  price,  hence  without  any  increase  in  annual  production,  arti- 
ficial lighting  will  result  in  a  greater  money  return. 

Effect  on  Pullets  and  Hens. — It  has  been  assumed  that  (1)  a  lay- 
ing hen  does  not  need  any  more  sleep  and  rest  in  winter  than  in 
summer  to  keep  in  good  health  and  (2)  the  only  reason  for  her  spend- 
ing a  longer  time  on  the  roosts  in  winter  is  because  there  are  more 
hours  of  darkness.  Experiments  and  practical  experience  seem  to 
prove  quite  conclusively  the  soundness  of  these  assumptions  because 
the  use  of  artificial  lighting  for  fourteen  hours  a  day  has  not  been 
found  in  any  way  injurious  to  a  hen's  health  and  vigor.  It  simply 
exerts  a  stimulus  on  production  by  lengthening  the  working  day  so 
that  the  hen  can  eat  and  exercise  more.  It  does  not  over  stimulate 
or  force  in  the  sense  that  a  drug  does.  It  is,  therefore,  not  injurious 
to  either  pullets  or  hens  and  there  should  be  no  ill  effects  carried 
over  from  year  to  year. 

Effect  on  Breeding  Hens. — Investigations  conducted  at  this  station 
indicate  that  it  is  inadvisable  to  use  artificial  lighting  with  breeding 
fowls. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  among  breeders  and  investigators  is  that 
it  is  desirable  to  use  artificial  light  only  with  pullets  and  hens  pro- 
ducing eggs  for  market  and  not  with  breeding  flocks.  It  is  held  that 
if  the  breeding  fowls  are  allowed  to  build  up  their  strength  through 
the  winter  period  in  preparation  for  a  large  yield  of  hatching  eggs 
in  spring,  much  better  hatches  and  stronger  chicks  will  be  obtained 
because  their  vitality  has  not  been  reduced  by  a  rather  long  period 
of  heavy  production  preceding  the  hatching  season.  But  if  lights  are 
used  with  the  breeding  hens,  they  should  not  be  started  until  after 
the  birds  have  entirely  finished  the  molt  and  should  not  be  turned  on 
before  5  a.m.  daily,  i.e.,  lighting  should  be  used  in  greater  moderation 
than  with  flocks  producing  market  eggs. 

In  hatching  tests  made  of  eggs  set  between  December  20  and  March 
20,  breeding  flocks  that  were  given  artificial  light  from  5  a.m.  to 
daylight  each  morning  beginning  December  1,  gave  87  per  cent  fertil- 
ity and  52  per  cent  of  all  the  eggs  set  hatched,  whereas  flocks  that 


Circular  254]  THe  USE  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  3 

were  given  no  artificial  light  gave  96  per  cent  fertility  and  61  per 
cent  of  all  eggs  set  .hatched. 

Source  of  Light. — Gasoline  lanterns,  acetylene  lights,  coal  oil 
lanterns  or  lamps,  and  electric  lights  represent  the  different  sources 
of  light  which  have  been  used  in  poultry  houses.  Coal  oil  lanterns 
have  not  proved  satisfactory  as  they  give  too  little  illumination.  Gaso- 
line lanterns,  are  unsafe  because  the  air  intake  holes  in  the  burners 
are  readily  choked  with  the  dust  stirred  up  by  the  fowls  scratching. 
Electric  lights  have  been  found  most  convenient  and  are  the  least 
dangerous  from  the  standpoint  of  fire  hazard. 

Amount  of  Light. — Poultry  houses  should  be  supplied  with  suf- 
ficient illumination  to  amply  light  the  mash  hoppers  and  scratching 
floor  so  that  the  fowls  can  readily  see  to  scratch  the  grain  out  of  the 
litter  and  eat  from  the  hoppers.  The  use  of  reflectors  will  prove  of 
great  value  in  concentrating  the  light  on  the  floor  where  it  is  needed. 
Metal  reflectors,  enameled  green  outside  and  white  inside,  are  very 
satisfactory  for  this  purpose  and  are  inexpensive  and  durable.  A 
wide,  flat  shade  from  12  to  14  inches  in  diameter  will  usually  dis- 
tribute the  light  more  effectively  than  a  narrow  and  more  conical 
one.  One  twenty-five  watt  lamp,  equipped  with  a  metal  shade  should 
be  sufficient  for  sixty  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

The  size  and  interior  arrangement  of  the  house  will  determine 
the  location  of  the  lights  to  obtain  the  most  effective  illumination. 

They  can  be  most  conveniently  hung  six  and  one-half  feet  above 
the  floor  where  they  are  out  of  the  way  and  least  liable  to  be  broken. 
jIn  houses  which  are  lighted  by  electricity  and  which  have  wide 
droppings  boards  that  partially  shade  the  floor  beneath,  one  or  more 
lights  can  be  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  droppings  boards  to 
better  illuminate  this  part  of  the  scratch  floor. 

When  to  Use  Lights. — The  use  of  artificial  lighting  in  California 
may  begin  as  early  as  October  first  and  should  be  discontinued  in  the 
spring  when  day  breaks  sufficiently  early  to  render  lights  of  no  further 
value  in  stimulating  production.  In  trials  it  has  been  found  that 
the  natural  stimulus  on  production  due  to  the  opening  of  the  breeding 
season  and  the  lengthened  period  of  daylight  makes  artificial  light 
of  practically  no  value  after  March  first. 

Data  compiled  from  sunrise  and  sunset  tabulations  supplied  by 
the  San  Francisco  office  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  for 
meridian  one  hundred  and  twenty,  show  the  average  hour  of  sunrise 
between  October  1  and  March  1  to  be  6 :59  a.m.,  and  the  average  hour 
of  sunset  to  be  5  :18  p.m.  The  difference  between  6 :59  a.  m.  when  the 
sun  rises,  and  5:18  p.m.,  when  it  sets,  is  ten  hours  and  19  minutes. 
To  give  a  laying  flock  a  fourteen  hour  day,  artificial  light  would 


4  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

have  to  be  used  for  three  hours  and  41  minutes.  Whether  or  not 
this  artificially  lengthened  part  of  the  day  can  be  most  beneficially 
given  in  the  morning,  at  night,  or  both  in  the  morning  and  at  night, 
has  not  been  definitely  determined.  Trials  indicate  that  morning 
lighting  is  as  effective  as  night  lighting  or  a  combination  of  both 
morning  and  night  lighting.  It  has  the  advantage  of  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  dimming  the  lights  which  is  done  about  ten  minutes 
before  the  close  of  the  daily  lighted  period  to  imitate  the  approach 
of  darkness  and  get  the  birds  on  the  roosts. 

If  a  fourteen  hour  day,  using  morning  lights  only,  were  the  sys- 
tem decided  on,  the  addition  of  three  hours  and  forty-one  minutes 
to  the  daylight  period  would  require  that  the  lights  be  turned  on  at 
3:18  a.m.  Repeated  trials,  however,  have  not  shown  that  there  is 
any  advantage  to  be  gained  in  using  lights  before  4 :00  or  4 :30  a.m. 

When  beginning  the  use  of  artificial  lighting  in  the  fall,  the 
lamps  should  be  lighted  fifteen  minutes  before  daylight  for  the  first 
three  days  and  then  the  time  advanced  by  five  or  ten  minute  periods 
daily  until  the  hour  is  reached  at  which  they  are  to  be  regularly  used. 
In  spring  the  lights  should  be  gradually  discontinued  in  the  same 
way,  beginning  the  latter  part  of  February. 

Installing  Electric  Lights. — If  electric  lighting  is  to  be  used  only 
in  the  morning,  the  wiring  should  be  done  in  the  usual  way,  but  if 
night  lighting  is  used,  provision  will  have  to  be  made  to  dim  the 
lights  just  before  they  are  turned  off  each  night  in  order  to  get  the 
birds  upon  the  roosts.  Two  simple  systems  of  dimming  can  be  used 
and  an  electrician  can  advise  how  to  install  either  system. 

The  first  system  consists  in  running  three  wires  through  the  build- 
ing about  six  inches  apart.  The  bright  lights  (25  Watt)  are  then 
connected  to  the  center  wire  and  one  outside  wire  and  the  dim  lights 
(10  Watt)  are  connected  to  the  center  wire  and  the  other  outside 
wire.  If  more  than  one  bright  light  is  used  in  each  pen,  half  as 
many  dim  lights  may  be  sufficient.  A  switch  is  then  cut  into  each  of 
the  two  outside  wires  between  the  lights  and  the  fuse  block.  By 
opening  one  switch  and  closing  the  other,  either  set  of  lights  will 
burn  depending  on  which  switch  is  opened  or  closed. 

The  second  method  is  to  cut  in  a  resistance  coil  around  a  secondary 
switch  which  should  be  located  between  the  lights  and  the  main  switch. 
With  the  main  switch  closed,  closing  the  secondary  switch  will  cause 
the  lights  to  burn  brightly;  opening  the  secondary  switch  will  force 
the  electricity  through  the  resistance  coil  and  dim  the  lights.  The 
strength  of  the  resistance  will  govern  the  amount  the  lights  are 
dimmed.     Only  two  wires  are  used  with  this  method. 


Circular  254] 


THE   USE   OF   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT 


6  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Time  Switches. — Electrically  operated  time  switches  can  be  pur- 
chased which  will  automatically  turn  the  lights  on  and  off  at  set 
times,  and  dim  these  lights  in  any  way  desired,  depending  on  the 
construction  of  the  switch.  Such  devices  are  quite  costly,  however, 
and  for  morning  lighting,  a  home-made  time  switch  such  as  is 
described  below  will  prove  just  as  satisfactory.  For  night  lighting 
the  switches  can  be  readily  operated  by  hand. 

The  time  switch  illustrated  in  Fig.  1  consists  of  a  small  wooden 
box  with  a  tight  cover  to  keep  out  dust,  an  inexpensive  alarm  clock 
having  a  one-piece  alarm  key  which  turns  when  the  alarm  goes  off, 
a  small,  single  blade  knife  switch,  a  4"  piece  of  hack  saw  blade,  a 
small  spool,  and  a  short  piece  of  coil  spring  cut  from  a  %6"xl6" 
Perfection  door  spring.  The  method  of  construction  should  be  clear 
from  the  drawing. 

This  switch  will  turn  the  lights  on  but  will  not  turn  them  off. 
When  morning  lights  are  used,  the  turning  off  of  the  lights  shortly 
after  daybreak  is  entirely  a  matter  of  economy  as  they  are  then  no 
longer  of  any  value. 

Feeding. — Since  the  effectiveness  of  artificial  lighting  is  due  pri- 
marily to  feeding  and  exercise,  best  results  can  not  be  expected  unless 
the  poultry  keeper  takes  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  use  of 
lights  to  feed  his  hens  to  the  best  advantage.  Extending  the  working 
day,  without  keeping  the  hens  busy  scratching  and  eating  so  as  to 
send  them  to  bed  with  full  crops,  cannot  be  expected  to  bring  results. 
Bringing  them  off  the  roosts  at  4 :30  a.m.  without  having  grain  in  the 
litter  for  them  to  scratch  out,  will  not  prove  of  much  value.  They 
must  be  kept  busy  and  they  must  be  well  and  skillfully  fed. 

Some  poultry  keepers  using  morning  lights,  scatter  the  morning 
feed  of  grain  in  the  litter  at  night  after  the  fowls  have  gone  to  roost. 
Others  feed  the  birds  when  the  lights  go  on  in  the  morning.  When 
evening  lights  are  used,  the  night  feeding  of  grain  is  fed  later. 

A  light  noon  feeding  of  a  moist,  crumbly  mash,  made  from  the 
regular  dry  mash  mixture,  will  also  be  found  to  greatly  aid  in  in- 
creasing winter  production.  This  mash  may  be  beneficially  moistened 
with  milk,  and  finely-cut  roots  or  tender  green  feed  should  be  added 
to  it  as  often  as  possible.  Since  fowls  must  be  confined  a  great  deal  in 
winter  and  the  weather  is  then  more  unfavorable  than  at  other  seasons, 
they  will  respond  much  better  to  special  care  and  feeding  than  in 
spring  and  summer  when  more  favorable  weather  prevails.  The  high 
prices  obtained  for  eggs  in  winter  should  well  repay  the  poultry  keeper 
for  any  extra  care  that -will  increase  the  production  of  his  flock.1 


*For  detailed  information  on  the  subject  of  poultry  feeding,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Circular  No.  242  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE   FOR  FREE   DISTRIBUTION 


BULLETINS 


No. 

253.  Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Foothills,  California. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,    "Juglans 

regia." 

262.  Citrus  Diseases  of  Florida   and  Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

267.  Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

268.  Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

270.  A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 
ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain. 

275.  The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

278.  Grain  Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation  of  Rice  in  California. 

280.  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  the  Sacramento 

Valley. 
283.  The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 

285.  The  Milk  Goat  in  California. 

286.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

287.  Vinegar  from  Waste  Fruits. 
294.  Bean  Culture  in  California. 

297.  The  Almond  in  California. 

298.  Seedless  Raisin  Grapes. 

299.  The  Use  of  Lumber  on  California  Farms. 
304.  A  Study  on  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 

Citrus  in  California. 

308.  I.  Fumigation  with  Liquid  Hydrocyanic 

Acid.  II.  Physical  and  Chemical  Prop- 
erties of  Liquid  Hydrocyanic  Acid. 

309.  I.  The  Carob  in  California.     II.  Nutri- 

tive Value  of  the  Carob  Bean. 

310.  Plum  Pollination. 
312.  Mariout  Barley. 


No. 
313. 
316. 
317. 

320. 
321. 
323. 

324. 

325. 


330. 
331. 
332. 
334. 

335. 

336. 

337. 
339. 

340. 

341. 

342. 
343. 
344. 

345. 

346. 
347. 

348. 


Pruning  Young  Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 

The  Kaki  or  Oriental  Persimmon. 

Selections  of  Stocks  in  Citrus  Propa- 
gation. 

Control  of  the  Coyote  in  California. 

Commercial  Production  of  Grape  Syrup. 

Heavy  vs.  Light  Grain  Feeding  for 
Dairy  Cows. 

Storage  of  Perishable  Fruit  at  Freezing 
Temperatures. 

Rice  Irrigation  Measurements  and  Ex- 
periments in  Sacramento  Valley, 
1914-1919. 

Dehydration  of  Fruits. 

Phylloxera-Resistant  Stocks. 

Walnut  Culture  in  California. 

Preliminary  Volume  Tables  for  Second- 
Growth  Redwoods. 

Cocoanut  Meal  as  a  Feed  for  Dairy 
Cows  and  Other  Livestock. 

The  Preparation  of  Nicotine  Dust  as 
an  Insecticide. 

Some  Factors  of  Dehydrater  Efficiency. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Making  Logs  from 
Small  and  Large  Timber. 

Control  of  the  Pocket  Gopher  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Studies  on  Irrigation  of  Citrus  Groves. 

Hog  Feeding  Experiments. 

Cheese  Pests  and  Their  Control. 

Cold  Storage  as  an  Aid  to  the  Market- 
ing: of  Plnms. 

Fertilizer  Experiments  with  Citrus 
Trees. 

Almond  Pollination. 

The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decidu- 
ous Orchards. 

Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 


CIRCULARS 


No. 

70.  Observations  on  the  Status  of  Corn 
Growing  in  California. 

82.  The  Common  Ground  Squirrels  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

87.  Alfalfa. 

110.  Green  Manuring  in  California. 

111.  The  Use  of  Lime  and  Gypsum  on  Cali- 

fornia Soils. 
113.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 
115.   Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

126.  Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper. 

127.  House  Fumigation. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 

138.  The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

144.  Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

148.  "Lungworms." 

151.  Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs. 

152.  Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand- 

ling of  Grain  in  California. 

155.  Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

157.  Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 

159.  Agriculture  in  the  Imperial  Valley. 

161.  Potatoes  in  California. 

164.  Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

165.  Fundamentals   of   Sugar  Beet  Culture 

under  California  Conditions. 

166.  The  County  Farm  Bureau. 

167.  Feeding  Stuffs  of  Minor  Importance. 

169.  The  1918  Grain  Crop. 

170.  Fertilizing  California  Soils  for  the  1918 

Crop. 

172.  Wheat  Culture. 

173.  The   Construction   of   the   Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 


No. 

174.  Farm  Drainage  Methods. 

175.  Progress  Report  on  the  Marketing  and 

Distribution  of  Milk. 

178.  The  Packing  of  Apples  in  California. 

179.  Factors   of   Importance   in    Producing 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial  Count. 

181.  Control     of     the     California     Ground 

Squirrel. 

182.  Extending  the  Area  of  Irrigated  Wheat 

in  California  for  1918. 

183.  Infectious  Abortion  in  Cows. 

184.  A  Flock  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm. 

188.  Lambing  Sheds. 

189.  Winter  Forage  Crops. 

190.  Agriculture  Clubs  in  California. 

193.  A  Study  of  Farm  Labor  in  California. 
198.   Syrup  from  Sweet  Sorghum. 

201.  Helpful  Hints  to  Hog  Raisers. 

202.  County  Organizations  for  Rural  Fire 

Control. 

203.  Peat  as  a  Manure  Substitute. 

205.  Blackleg. 

206.  Jack  Cheese. 

208.  Summary  of  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 

Farm  Advisors  of  California. 

209.  The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

210.  Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 
212.   Salvaging  Rain-Damaged  Prunes. 

214.  Seed  Treatment  for  the  Prevention  of 

Cereal  Smuts. 

215.  Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
217.  Methods  for  Marketing  Vegetables  in 

California. 


CIRCULARS — Continued 


No. 

218.  Advanced   Registry   Testing   of   Dairy 

Cows. 

219.  The  Present  Status  of  Alkali. 

223.  The  Pear  Thrips. 

224.  Control    of   the    Brown    Apricot    Scale 

and  the  Italian  Pear  Scale  on  Decid- 
uous Fruit  Trees. 

225.  Propagation  of  Vines. 

227.  Plant  Diseases  and  Pest  Control. 

228.  Vineyard  Irrigation  in  Arid  Climates. 

230.  Testing  Milk,   Cream,    and   Skim  Milk 

for  Butterfat. 

231.  The  Home  Vineyard. 

232.  Harvesting    and    Handling    California 

Cherries  for  Eastern  Shipment. 

233.  Artificial  Incubation. 

234.  Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees 

during  1921-22. 

235.  Soil  Analysis  and  Soil  and  Plant  liter- 

relations. 

236.  The  Common  Hawks  and  Owls  of  Cali- 

fornia  from   the    Standpoint   of   the 
Rancher. 


No. 
237. 

238. 
239. 

240. 

241. 

242. 
243. 

244. 
245. 
246. 

247. 
248. 

249. 
252. 
253. 


Directions  for  the  Tanning  and  Dress- 
ing of  Furs. 

The  Apricot  in  California. 

Harvesting  and  Handling  Apricots  and 
Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment. 

Harvesting  and  Handling  Pears  for 
Eastern   Shipment. 

Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for 
Eastern   Shipment. 

Poultry  Feeding. 

Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from 
Citrus  Fruits. 

Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees. 

Vine  Pruning  Systems. 

Desirable  Qualities  of  California  Bar- 
ley for  Export. 

Colonization  and  Rural  Development. 

Some  Common  Errors  in  Vine  Pruning 
and  Their  Remedies. 

Replacing  Missing  Vines. 

Supports  for  Vines. 

Vineyard  Plans. 


